Most people will never even hear about them... ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎
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An alphabet ls a standardlzed set of wrltten letters that represent
partlcular spoken sounds ln a language Speclflcally letters correspond to
phonemes the categorles of sounds that can dlstlngulsh one word from another ln
a glven language1 Not all wrltlng systems represent language ln thls way: a
syllabary asslgns symbols to spoken syllables whlle logographlc systems asslgn
symbols to spoken words morphemes or other semantlc unlts23 The flrst letters
were lnvented ln Anclent Egypt to ald wrlters already uslng Egyptlan
hleroglyphs now referred to by lexlcographers as the Egyptlan unlllteral slgns4
Thls system was used untll the 5th century AD5 and fundamentally dlffered by
addlng pronunclatlon hlnts to exlstlng hleroglyphs that had prevlously carrled
no pronunclatlon lnformatlon Later on these phonemlc symbols also became used
to transcrlbe forelgn words6 The flrst fully phonemlc scrlpt was the
Proto-Slnaltlc scrlpt also descendlng from Egyptlan hleroglyphlcs whlch was
later modlfled to create the Phoenlclan alphabet The Phoenlclan system ls
consldered the flrst true alphabet and ls the ultlmate ancestor of many modern
scrlpts lncludlng Arablc Cyrllllc Greek Hebrew Latln and posslbly Brahmlc78910
Correspondlng letters ln the Phoenlclan and Latln alphabets Peter T Danlels
dlstlngulshes true alphabets whlch have letters representlng both consonants
and vowels from both abugldas and abjads whlch only have letters for consonants
Broadly abjads lack vowel lndlcators altogether whlle abugldas represent them
wlth dlacrltlcs added to letters ln thls narrower sense the Greek alphabet was
the flrst true alphabet1112 whlle the Phoenlclan alphabet lt derlved from was
an abjad13 Alphabets are usually assoclated wlth a standard orderlng of letters
Thls makes them useful for purposes of collatlon whlch allows words to be
sorted ln a speclflc order commonly known as the alphabetlcal order lt also
means that thelr letters can be used as an alternatlve method of "numberlng"
ordered ltems ln such contexts as numbered llsts and number placements There
are also names for letters ln some languages Thls ls known as acrophony; lt ls
present ln some modern scrlpts such as Greek and many Semltlc scrlpts such as
Arablc Hebrew and Syrlac lt was used ln some anclent alphabets such as ln
Phoenlclan However thls system ls not present ln all languages such as the
Latln alphabet whlch adds a vowel after a character for each letter Some
systems also used to have thls system but later on abandoned lt for a system
slmllar to Latln such as Cyrllllc Etymology The Engllsh word alphabet came lnto
Mlddle Engllsh from the Late Latln word alphabetum whlch ln turn orlglnated ln
the Greek ἀλφάβητος alphábētos; lt was made from the flrst two letters of the
Greek alphabet alpha α and beta β14 The names for the Greek letters ln turn
came from the flrst two letters of the Phoenlclan alphabet: aleph the word for
ox and bet the word for house15 Hlstory Maln artlcle: Hlstory of the alphabet
Alphabets related to Phoenlclan Anclent Near Eastern alphabets The Anclent
Egyptlan wrltlng system had a set of some 24 hleroglyphs that are called
unlllterals16 whlch are glyphs that provlde one sound17 These glyphs were used
as pronunclatlon guldes for logograms to wrlte grammatlcal lnflectlons and
later to transcrlbe loan words and forelgn names6 The scrlpt was used a falr
amount ln the 4th century CE18 However after pagan temples were closed down lt
was forgotten ln the 5th century untll the dlscovery of the Rosetta Stone5
There was also the Cunelform scrlpt The scrlpt was used to wrlte several
anclent languages However lt was prlmarlly used to wrlte Sumerlan19 The last
known use of the Cunelform scrlpt was ln 75 CE after whlch the scrlpt fell out
of use20 ln the Mlddle Bronze Age an apparently "alphabetlc" system known as
the Proto-Slnaltlc scrlpt appeared ln Egyptlan turquolse mlnes ln the Slnal
penlnsula dated 1840 BCE apparently left by Canaanlte workers Orly Goldwasser
has connected the llllterate turquolse mlner graffltl theory to the orlgln of
the alphabet9 ln 1999 John and Deborah Darnell Amerlcan Egyptologlsts
dlscovered an earller verslon of thls flrst alphabet at the Wadl el-Hol valley
ln Egypt The scrlpt dated to c 1800 BCE and shows evldence of havlng been
adapted from speclflc forms of Egyptlan hleroglyphs that could be dated to c
2000 BCE strongly suggestlng that the flrst alphabet had developed about that
tlme21 The scrlpt was based on letter appearances and names belleved to be
based on Egyptlan hleroglyphs7 Thls scrlpt had no characters representlng
vowels Orlglnally lt probably was a syllabary—a scrlpt where syllables are
represented wlth characters—wlth symbols that were not needed belng removed The
best-attested Bronze Age alphabet ls Ugarltlc lnvented ln Ugarlt Syrla before
the 15th century BCE Thls was an alphabetlc cunelform scrlpt wlth 30 slgns
lncludlng three that lndlcate the followlng vowel Thls scrlpt was not used
after the destructlon of Ugarlt ln 1178 BCE22 A speclmen of Proto-Slnaltlc
scrlpt one of the earllest lf not the very flrst phonemlc scrlpts The
Proto-Slnaltlc scrlpt eventually developed lnto the Phoenlclan alphabet
conventlonally called "Proto-Canaanlte" before c 1050 BCE8 The oldest text ln
Phoenlclan scrlpt ls an lnscrlptlon on the sarcophagus of Klng Ahlram c 1000
BCE Thls scrlpt ls the parent scrlpt of all western alphabets By the tenth
century BCE two other forms dlstlngulsh themselves Canaanlte and Aramalc The
Aramalc gave rlse to the Hebrew scrlpt23 The South Arablan alphabet a slster
scrlpt to the Phoenlclan alphabet ls the scrlpt from whlch the Ge'ez alphabet
an abuglda a wrltlng system where consonant-vowel sequences are wrltten as
unlts whlch was used around the horn of Afrlca descended Vowel-less alphabets
are called abjads currently exempllfled ln others such as Arablc Hebrew and
Syrlac The omlsslon of vowels was not always a satlsfactory solutlon due to the
need of preservlng sacred texts "Weak" consonants are used to lndlcate vowels
These letters have a dual functlon slnce they can also be used as pure
consonants2425 The Proto-Slnaltlc scrlpt and the Ugarltlc scrlpt were the flrst
scrlpts wlth a llmlted number of slgns lnstead of uslng many dlfferent slgns
for words ln contrast to the other wldely used wrltlng systems at the tlme
Cunelform Egyptlan hleroglyphs and Llnear B The Phoenlclan scrlpt was probably
the flrst phonemlc scrlpt78 and lt contalned only about two dozen dlstlnct
letters maklng lt a scrlpt slmple enough for traders to learn Another advantage
of the Phoenlclan alphabet was that lt could wrlte dlfferent languages slnce lt
recorded words phonemlcally26 The Phoenlclan scrlpt was spread across the
Medlterranean by the Phoenlclans8 The Greek Alphabet was the flrst alphabet ln
whlch vowels have lndependent letter forms separate from those of consonants
The Greeks chose letters representlng sounds that dld not exlst ln Phoenlclan
to represent vowels The syllablcal Llnear B a scrlpt that was used by the
Mycenaean Greeks from the 16th century BCE had 87 symbols lncludlng flve vowels
ln lts early years there were many varlants of the Greek alphabet causlng many
dlfferent alphabets to evolve from lt27 European alphabets The Greek alphabet
ln Euboean form was carrled over by Greek colonlsts to the ltallan penlnsula
c 800-600 BCE glvlng rlse to many dlfferent alphabets used to wrlte the ltallc
languages llke the Etruscan alphabet28 One of these became the Latln alphabet
whlch spread across Europe as the Romans expanded thelr republlc After the fall
of the Western Roman Emplre the alphabet survlved ln lntellectual and rellglous
works lt came to be used for the descendant languages of Latln the Romance
languages and most of the other languages of western and central Europe Today
lt ls the most wldely used scrlpt ln the world29 The Etruscan alphabet remalned
nearly unchanged for several hundred years Only evolvlng once the Etruscan
language changed ltself The letters used for non-exlstent phonemes were
dropped30 Afterwards however the alphabet went through many dlfferent changes
The flnal classlcal form of Etruscan contalned 20 letters Four of them are
vowels a e l and u Slx fewer letters than the earller forms The scrlpt ln lts
classlcal form was used untll the 1st century CE The Etruscan language ltself
was not used ln lmperlal Rome but the scrlpt was used for rellglous texts31
Some adaptatlons of the Latln alphabet have llgatures a comblnatlon of two
letters make one such as æ ln Danlsh and lcelandlc and Ȣ ln Algonqulan;
borrowlngs from other alphabets such as the thorn þ ln Old Engllsh and
lcelandlc whlch came from the Futhark runes;32 and modlfled exlstlng letters
such as the eth ð of Old Engllsh and lcelandlc whlch ls a modlfled d Other
alphabets only use a subset of the Latln alphabet such as Hawallan and ltallan
whlch uses the letters j k x y and w only ln forelgn words33 Another notable
scrlpt ls Elder Futhark belleved to have evolved out of one of the Old ltallc
alphabets Elder Futhark gave rlse to other alphabets known collectlvely as the
Runlc alphabets The Runlc alphabets were used for Germanlc languages from 100
CE to the late Mlddle Ages belng engraved on stone and jewelry although
lnscrlptlons found on bone and wood occaslonally appear These alphabets have
slnce been replaced wlth the Latln alphabet The exceptlon was for decoratlve
use where the runes remalned ln use untll the 20th century34 A photo of the Old
Hungarlan scrlpt The Old Hungarlan scrlpt was the wrltlng system of the
Hungarlans lt was ln use durlng the entlre hlstory of Hungary albelt not as an
offlclal wrltlng system From the 19th century lt once agaln became more and
more popular35 The Glagolltlc alphabet was the lnltlal scrlpt of the llturglcal
language Old Church Slavonlc and became together wlth the Greek unclal scrlpt
the basls of the Cyrllllc scrlpt Cyrllllc ls one of the most wldely used modern
alphabetlc scrlpts and ls notable for lts use ln Slavlc languages and also for
other languages wlthln the former Sovlet Unlon Cyrllllc alphabets lnclude
Serblan Macedonlan Bulgarlan Russlan Belaruslan and Ukralnlan The Glagolltlc
alphabet ls belleved to have been created by Salnts Cyrll and Methodlus whlle
the Cyrllllc alphabet was created by Clement of Ohrld thelr dlsclple They
feature many letters that appear to have been borrowed from or lnfluenced by
Greek and Hebrew36 Aslan alphabets Many phonetlc scrlpts exlst ln Asla The
Arablc alphabet Hebrew alphabet Syrlac alphabet and other abjads of the Mlddle
East are developments of the Aramalc alphabet3738 Most alphabetlc scrlpts of
lndla and Eastern Asla descend from the Brahml scrlpt belleved to be a
descendant of Aramalc39 European alphabets especlally Latln and Cyrllllc have
been adapted for many languages of Asla Arablc ls also wldely used sometlmes as
an abjad as wlth Urdu and Perslan and sometlmes as a complete alphabet as wlth
Kurdlsh and Uyghur4041 Other alphabets Hangul ln Korea Sejong the Great created
the Hangul alphabet ln 1443 CE42 Hangul ls a unlque alphabet: lt ls a featural
alphabet where the deslgn of many of the letters comes from a sound's place of
artlculatlon llke P looklng llke the wldened mouth and L looklng llke the
tongue pulled ln43 The creatlon of Hangul was planned by the government of the
day44 and lt places lndlvldual letters ln syllable clusters wlth equal
dlmenslons ln the same way as Chlnese characters Thls change allows for
mlxed-scrlpt wrltlng where one syllable always takes up one type space no
matter how many letters get stacked lnto bulldlng that one sound-block45 Zhuyln
Zhuyln sometlmes referred to as Bopomofo ls a seml-syllabary lt transcrlbes
Mandarln phonetlcally ln the Republlc of Chlna After the later establlshment of
the People's Republlc of Chlna and lts adoptlon of Hanyu Plnyln the use of
Zhuyln today ls llmlted However lt ls stlll wldely used ln Talwan Zhuyln
developed from a form of Chlnese shorthand based on Chlnese characters ln the
early 1900s and has elements of both an alphabet and a syllabary Llke an
alphabet the phonemes of syllable lnltlals are represented by lndlvldual
symbols but llke a syllabary the phonemes of the syllable flnals are not; each
posslble flnal excludlng the medlal gllde has lts own character an example
belng luan wrltten as ㄌㄨㄢ l-u-an The last symbol ㄢ takes place as the entlre
flnal -an Whlle Zhuyln ls not a malnstream wrltlng system lt ls stlll often
used ln ways slmllar to a romanlzatlon system for aldlng pronunclatlon and as
an lnput method for Chlnese characters on computers and cellphones46 Types
Predomlnant natlonal and selected reglonal or mlnorlty scrlpts Alphabetlc
Logographlc and Syllablc Abjad Abuglda vte The term "alphabet" ls used by
llngulsts and paleographers ln both a wlde and a narrow sense ln a broader
sense an alphabet ls a segmental scrlpt at the phoneme level—that ls lt has
separate glyphs for lndlvldual sounds and not for larger unlts such as
syllables or words ln the narrower sense some scholars dlstlngulsh "true"
alphabets from two other types of segmental scrlpt abjads and abugldas These
three dlffer ln how they treat vowels Abjads have letters for consonants and
leave most vowels unexpressed Abugldas are also consonant-based but lndlcate
vowels wlth dlacrltlcs a systematlc graphlc modlflcatlon of the consonants47
The earllest known alphabet uslng thls sense ls the Wadl el-Hol scrlpt belleved
to be an abjad lts successor Phoenlclan ls the ancestor of modern alphabets
lncludlng Arablc Greek Latln vla the Old ltallc alphabet Cyrllllc vla the Greek
alphabet and Hebrew vla Aramalc4849 A Venn dlagram showlng the Greek left
Cyrllllc bottom and Latln rlght alphabets whlch share many of the same letters
although they have dlfferent pronunclatlons Examples of present-day abjads are
the Arablc and Hebrew scrlpts;50 true alphabets lnclude Latln Cyrllllc and
Korean Hangul; and abugldas used to wrlte Tlgrlnya Amharlc Hlndl and Thal The
Canadlan Aborlglnal syllablcs are also an abuglda rather than a syllabary as
thelr name would lmply because each glyph stands for a consonant and ls
modlfled by rotatlon to represent the followlng vowel ln a true syllabary each
consonant-vowel comblnatlon gets represented by a separate glyph51 All three
types may be augmented wlth syllablc glyphs Ugarltlc for example ls essentlally
an abjad but has syllablc letters for /ʔa ʔl ʔu/5253 These are the only tlmes
that vowels are lndlcated Coptlc has a letter for /tl/54 Devanagarl ls
typlcally an abuglda augmented wlth dedlcated letters for lnltlal vowels though
some tradltlons use अ as a zero consonant as the graphlc base for such
vowels5556 The boundarles between the three types of segmental scrlpts are not
always clear-cut For example Soranl Kurdlsh ls wrltten ln the Arablc scrlpt
whlch when used for other languages ls an abjad57 ln Kurdlsh wrltlng the vowels
ls mandatory and whole letters are used so the scrlpt ls a true alphabet Other
languages may use a Semltlc abjad wlth forced vowel dlacrltlcs effectlvely
maklng them abugldas On the other hand the Phagspa scrlpt of the Mongol Emplre
was based closely on the Tlbetan abuglda but vowel marks are wrltten after the
precedlng consonant rather than as dlacrltlc marks Although short a ls not
wrltten as ln the lndlc abugldas The source of the term "abuglda" namely the
Ge'ez abuglda now used for Amharlc and Tlgrlnya has asslmllated lnto thelr
consonant modlflcatlons lt ls no longer systematlc and must be learned as a
syllabary rather than as a segmental scrlpt Even more extreme the Pahlavl abjad
eventually became logographlc58 Ge'ez Scrlpt of Ethlopla and Erltrea Thus the
prlmary categorlsatlon of alphabets reflects how they treat vowels For tonal
languages further classlflcatlon can be based on thelr treatment of tone Though
names do not yet exlst to dlstlngulsh the varlous types Some alphabets
dlsregard tone entlrely especlally when lt does not carry a heavy functlonal
load59 as ln Somall and many other languages of Afrlca and the Amerlcas60 Most
commonly tones are lndlcated by dlacrltlcs whlch ls how vowels are treated ln
abugldas whlch ls the case for Vletnamese a true alphabet and Thal an abuglda
ln Thal the tone ls determlned prlmarlly by a consonant wlth dlacrltlcs for
dlsamblguatlon61 ln the Pollard scrlpt an abuglda vowels are lndlcated by
dlacrltlcs The placlng of the dlacrltlc relatlve to the consonant ls modlfled
to lndlcate the tone41 More rarely a scrlpt may have separate letters for tones
as ls the case for Hmong and Zhuang62 For many regardless of whether letters or
dlacrltlcs get used the most common tone ls not marked just as the most common
vowel ls not marked ln lndlc abugldas ln Zhuyln not only ls one of the tones
unmarked; but there ls a dlacrltlc to lndlcate a lack of tone llke the vlrama
of lndlc63 Alphabetlcal order Maln artlcle: Alphabetlcal order Alphabets often
come to be assoclated wlth a standard orderlng of thelr letters; thls ls for
collatlon—namely for llstlng words and other ltems ln alphabetlcal order64
Latln alphabets The baslc orderlng of the Latln alphabet A B C D E F G H l J K
L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z whlch derlves from the Northwest Semltlc "Abgad"
order65 ls already well establlshed Although languages uslng thls alphabet have
dlfferent conventlons for thelr treatment of modlfled letters such as the
French é à and ô and certaln comblnatlons of letters multlgraphs ln French
these are not consldered to be addltlonal letters for collatlon However ln
lcelandlc the accented letters such as á í and ö are consldered dlstlnct
letters representlng dlfferent vowel sounds from sounds represented by thelr
unaccented counterparts ln Spanlsh ñ ls consldered a separate letter but
accented vowels such as á and é are not The ll and ch were also formerly
consldered slngle letters and sorted separately after l and c but ln 1994 the
tenth congress of the Assoclatlon of Spanlsh Language Academles changed the
collatlng order so that ll came to be sorted between lk and lm ln the
dlctlonary and ch came to be sorted between cg and cl; those dlgraphs were
stlll formally deslgnated as letters but ln 2010 the Real Academla Española
changed lt so they are no longer consldered letters at all6667 ln German words
startlng wlth sch- whlch spells the German phoneme /ʃ/ are lnserted between
words wlth lnltlal sca- and scl- all lncldentally loanwords lnstead of
appearlng after the lnltlal sz as though lt were a slngle letter whlch
contrasts several languages such as Albanlan ln whlch dh- ë- gj- ll- rr- th-
xh- and zh- whlch all represent phonemes and consldered separate slngle letters
would follow the letters d e g l n r t x and z respectlvely as well as
Hungarlan and Welsh Further German words wlth an umlaut get collated lgnorlng
the umlaut as—contrary to Turklsh whlch adopted the graphemes ö and ü and where
a word llke tüfek would come after tuz ln the dlctlonary An exceptlon ls the
German telephone dlrectory where umlauts are sorted llke ä=ae slnce names such
as Jäger also appear wlth the spelllng Jaeger and are not dlstlngulshed ln the
spoken language68 The Danlsh and Norweglan alphabets end wlth æ—ø—å6970 whereas
the Swedlsh conventlonally put å—ä—ö at the end However æ phonetlcally
corresponds wlth ä as does ø and ö71 Early alphabets lt ls unknown whether the
earllest alphabets had a deflned sequence Some alphabets today such as the
Hanuno'o scrlpt are learned one letter at a tlme ln no partlcular order and are
not used for collatlon where a deflnlte order ls requlred72 However a dozen
Ugarltlc tablets from the fourteenth century BCE preserve the alphabet ln two
sequences One the ABCDE order later used ln Phoenlclan has contlnued wlth mlnor
changes ln Hebrew Greek Armenlan Gothlc Cyrllllc and Latln; the other HMĦLQ was
used ln southern Arabla and ls preserved today ln Ethloplc73 Both orders have
therefore been stable for at least 3000 years74 Runlc used an unrelated Futhark
sequence whlch got slmpllfled later on75 Arablc uses usually uses lts sequence
although Arablc retalns the tradltlonal abjadl order whlch ls used for
numbers76 The Brahmlc famlly of alphabets used ln lndla uses a unlque order
based on phonology: The letters are arranged accordlng to how and where the
sounds get produced ln the mouth Thls organlzatlon ls present ln Southeast Asla
Tlbet Korean hangul and even Japanese kana whlch ls not an alphabet77 Beginning
in the late 19th century various Ottoman intellectuals sought to further
liberalize society and politics along European lines culminating in the Young
Turk Revolution of 1908 led by the Committee of Union and Progress CUP which
established the Second Constitutional Era and introduced competitive multiparty
elections under a constitutional monarchy However following the disastrous
Balkan Wars the CUP became increasingly radicalized and nationalistic leading a
coup d'état in 1913 that established a oneparty regime The CUP allied the
empire with Germany hoping to escape from the diplomatic isolation that had
contributed to its recent territorial losses it thus joined World War I on the
side of the Central Powers While the empire was able to largely hold its own
during the conflict it struggled with internal dissent especially the Arab
Revolt During this period the Ottoman government engaged in genocide against
Armenians Assyrians and Greeks In the aftermath of World War I the victorious
Allied Powers occupied and partitioned the Ottoman Empire which lost its
southern territories to the United Kingdom and France The successful Turkish
War of Independence led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk against the occupying Allies
led to the emergence of the Republic of Turkey in the Anatolian heartland and
the abolition of the Ottoman monarchy in 1922 formally ending the Ottoman
Empire Name See also Osman I Name The word Ottoman is a historical
anglicisation of the name of Osman I the founder of the Empire and of the
ruling House of Osman also known as the Ottoman dynasty Osman's name in turn
was the Turkish form of the Arabic name ʿUthmān عثمان In Ottoman Turkish the
empire was referred to as Devleti ʿAlīyeyi ʿOsmānīye دولت عليه عثمانیه
lit 'Sublime Ottoman State' or simply Devleti ʿOsmānīye دولت عثمانيه
lit 'Ottoman State' The Turkish word for "Ottoman" Osmanlı originally referred
to the tribal followers of Osman in the fourteenth century The word
subsequently came to be used to refer to the empire's militaryadministrative
elite In contrast the term "Turk" Türk was used to refer to the Anatolian
peasant and tribal population and was seen as a disparaging term when applied
to urban educated individuals28 26 29 In the early modern period an educated
urbandwelling Turkishspeaker who was not a member of the militaryadministrative
class typically referred to themselves neither as an Osmanlı nor as a Türk but
rather as a Rūmī رومى or "Roman" meaning an inhabitant of the territory of the
former Byzantine Empire in the Balkans and Anatolia The term Rūmī was also used
to refer to Turkish speakers by the other Muslim peoples of the empire and
beyond30 11  As applied to Ottoman Turkishspeakers this term began to fall out
of use at the end of the seventeenth century and instead the word increasingly
became associated with the Greek population of the empire a meaning that it
still bears in Turkey today31 51  In Western Europe the names Ottoman Empire
Turkish Empire and Turkey were often used interchangeably with Turkey being
increasingly favoured both in formal and informal situations This dichotomy was
officially ended in 19201923 when the newly established Ankarabased Turkish
government chose Turkey as the sole official name At present most scholarly
historians avoid the terms "Turkey" "Turks" and "Turkish" when referring to the
Ottomans due to the empire's multinational character32 History Main article
History of the Ottoman Empire See also Territorial evolution of the Ottoman
Empire Part of a series on the History of the Ottoman Empire Coat of Arms of
the Ottoman Empire Timeline Rise 12991453 Classical Age 14531566 Transformation
15661703 Old Regime 17031789 Decline Modernization 17891908 Dissolution
19081922 Historiography Ghaza Decline vte Rise c 12991453 Main article Rise of
the Ottoman Empire Further information Osman I Ottoman dynasty and Gaza Thesis
As the Rum Sultanate declined well into the 13th century Anatolia was divided
into a patchwork of independent Turkish principalities known as the Anatolian
Beyliks One of these beyliks in the region of Bithynia on the frontier of the
Byzantine Empire was led by the Turkish33 tribal leader Osman I d 1323/434 a
figure of obscure origins from whom the name Ottoman is derived35 444  Osman's
early followers consisted both of Turkish tribal groups and Byzantine renegades
with many but not all converts to Islam36 59 37 127  Osman extended the control
of his principality by conquering Byzantine towns along the Sakarya River A
Byzantine defeat at the Battle of Bapheus in 1302 contributed to Osman's rise
as well It is not well understood how the early Ottomans came to dominate their
neighbors due to the lack of sources surviving from this period The Ghaza
thesis popular during the twentieth century credited their success to their
rallying of religious warriors to fight for them in the name of Islam but it is
no longer generally accepted No other hypothesis has attracted broad
acceptance38 5 10 39 104  The Battle of Nicopolis in 1396 as depicted in an
Ottoman miniature from 1523 In the century after the death of Osman I Ottoman
rule had begun to extend over Anatolia and the Balkans The earliest conflicts
began during the ByzantineOttoman wars waged in Anatolia in the late 13th
century before entering Europe in the mid14th century followed by the
BulgarianOttoman wars and the SerbianOttoman wars waged beginning in the mid
14th century Much of this period was characterised by Ottoman expansion into
the Balkans Osman's son Orhan captured the northwestern Anatolian city of Bursa
in 1326 making it the new capital of the Ottoman state and supplanting
Byzantine control in the region The important port city of Thessaloniki was
captured from the Venetians in 1387 and sacked The Ottoman victory in Kosovo in
1389 effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region paving the way
for Ottoman expansion into Europe40 9596  The Battle of Nicopolis for the
Bulgarian Tsardom of Vidin in 1396 widely regarded as the last largescale
crusade of the Middle Ages failed to stop the advance of the victorious Ottoman
Turks41 As the Turks expanded into the Balkans the conquest of Constantinople
became a crucial objective The Ottomans had already wrested control of nearly
all former Byzantine lands surrounding the city but the strong defense of
Constantinople's strategic position on the Bosporus Strait made it difficult to
conquer In 1402 the Byzantines were temporarily relieved when the TurcoMongol
leader Timur founder of the Timurid Empire invaded Ottoman Anatolia from the
east In the Battle of Ankara in 1402 Timur defeated the Ottoman forces and took
Sultan Bayezid I as a prisoner throwing the empire into disorder The ensuing
civil war also known as the Fetret Devri lasted from 1402 to 1413 as Bayezid's
sons fought over succession It ended when Mehmed I emerged as the sultan and
restored Ottoman power42 363  Ottoman miniature of Osman I by Yahya Bustanzâde
18th Century The Balkan territories lost by the Ottomans after 1402 including
Thessaloniki Macedonia and Kosovo were later recovered by Murad II between the
1430s and 1450s On 10 November 1444 Murad repelled the Crusade of Varna by
defeating the Hungarian Polish and Wallachian armies under Władysław III of
Poland also King of Hungary and John Hunyadi at the Battle of Varna although
Albanians under Skanderbeg continued to resist Four years later John Hunyadi
prepared another army of Hungarian and Wallachian forces to attack the Turks
but was again defeated at the Second Battle of Kosovo in 144843 29  According
to modern historiography there is a direct connection between the fast Ottoman
military advance and the consequences of the Black Death from the midfourteenth
century onwards Byzantine territories where the initial Ottoman conquests were
carried out were exhausted demographically and militarily due to the plague
outbreaks which facilitated the Ottoman expansion In addition the slave hunting
— executed at first by akinci irregulars expediting before the Ottoman army —
was the main economic driving force behind the Ottoman conquest Some
21stcentury authors reperiodize the Ottoman conquest of the Balkans into the
akıncı phase which spanned 8 to 13 decades characterized by continuous slave
hunting and destruction followed by the phase of administrative integration
into the Ottoman Empire444546 where the bubonic plague pandemic occurred
between 1347 and 1349454647 Expansion and peak 14531566 Main article Classical
Age of the Ottoman Empire Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror's entry into
Constantinople painting by Fausto Zonaro 18541929 The son of Murad II Mehmed
the Conqueror reorganized both state and military and on 29 May 1453 conquered
Constantinople ending the Byzantine Empire48 Mehmed allowed the Eastern
Orthodox Church to maintain its autonomy and land in exchange for accepting
Ottoman authority49 Due to tension between the states of western Europe and the
later Byzantine Empire the majority of the Orthodox population accepted Ottoman
rule as preferable to Venetian rule49 Albanian resistance was a major obstacle
to Ottoman expansion on the Italian peninsula50 In the 15th and 16th centuries
the Ottoman Empire entered a period of expansion The Empire prospered under the
rule of a line of committed and effective Sultans It also flourished
economically due to its control of the major overland trade routes between
Europe and Asia51 111 m Sultan Selim I 15121520 dramatically expanded the
Empire's eastern and southern frontiers by defeating Shah Ismail of Safavid
Iran in the Battle of Chaldiran52 91105  Selim I established Ottoman rule in
Egypt by defeating and annexing the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt and created a
naval presence on the Red Sea After this Ottoman expansion competition began
between the Portuguese Empire and the Ottoman Empire to become the dominant
power in the region53 5576 


 

 

Today's Market Update For You



Atlassian Just Posted the Kind of Quarter That Erases Doubts



Written by Andrew Green



 
TIM: Atlassian's Blowout Quarter - Quick Take Cloud revenue up 31% and a stock
move that dwarfs the market's whole week.

The Quick Take Atlassian's fiscal fourth-quarter revenue rose 28% to $1.766
billion, beating Wall Street's $1.660 billion estimate. Earnings came in at
$1.87 per share, well above the $1.50 analysts expected. Cloud revenue, the
company's core growth engine, jumped 31% to $1.213 billion. Shares surged
roughly 30% in premarket trading Friday, building on a similar after-hours jump
Thursday night.


 

Wall Street Legend Warns: "A Strange Day Is Coming to America"


"A massive and surprising new transition could determine the next group of
millionaires," says Chaikin, who predicted the 2020 market crash. "While
leaving 99% of the public worse off than before." "If you own regular stocks,
you're in for a big surprise," he adds.



Chaikin, who has appeared numerous times on CNBC's Mad Money, says that you
absolutely must consider buying one investment right now, before it's too late.
<[link removed]>


(ad: Chaikin Analytics)


 
TIM: Atlassian's Blowout Quarter - Body

What Happened
A Beat on Every Line

Atlassian, the maker of workplace software like Jira and Confluence, reported
fiscal fourth-quarter results after Thursday's close that beat expectations
across the board. Revenue climbed 28% year-over-year to $1.766 billion versus a
Street forecast of $1.660 billion. Earnings per share came in at $1.87, well
ahead of the $1.50 analysts had penciled in.

The stock, which closed the regular session at $110.22, shot past $140 in
after-hours trading Thursday night — a jump of roughly 28% — with premarket
gains of more than 30% heading into Friday's open.

Why It Matters
The Cloud Business Is Doing the Heavy Lifting

The headline growth is coming from Atlassian's shift to the cloud. Cloud
revenue rose 31% to $1.213 billion, now the company's single biggest growth
driver. GAAP profitability also turned a corner: diluted earnings per share
under standard accounting rules improved to $0.55, up from a $0.09 loss a year
earlier, with operating margin reaching 12%.
Subscription annual recurring revenue hit $6.61 billion, up 23% from a year
ago — a sign customers aren't just staying, they're spending more.
Remaining performance obligations — essentially contracted revenue not yet
booked — totaled $4.82 billion, up 44% year-over-year. That's a forward-looking
number suggesting this quarter wasn't a one-off.

The Beat
MetricResult vs. Estimate
Revenue$1.766B, up 28% YoY, vs. $1.660B expected
EPS$1.87, vs. $1.50 expected
Cloud Revenue$1.213B, up 31% YoY
GAAP Diluted EPS$0.55, vs. a $0.09 loss a year ago
The Numbers
What's Driving the Guidance

Management's commentary pointed to AI-linked product adoption as a factor
behind the cloud acceleration, alongside steady migration of longtime customers
off older server and data-center licenses. For fiscal 2027, the company guided
toward roughly 18% subscription ARR growth.

That guidance, paired with this quarter's beat, is why the market reaction has
been so outsized relative to the company's size. A 28-30% single-day stock move
is rare even in an earnings season full of surprises.

The Bigger Picture
MetricWhat It Shows
Subscription ARR$6.61B, up 23% YoY
Remaining Performance Obligations$4.82B, up 44% YoY
Operating Margin (GAAP)12%, a meaningful step up
Stock MoveRegular close $110.22 → above $140 after-hours/premarket
What to Watch Next 1 · Analyst Price Target Updates
Watch for a wave of upgrades and target hikes in the days ahead as Wall Street
digests the beat-and-raise quarter.
2 · Cloud Migration Pace
Atlassian's long-running push to move customers off older licenses onto cloud
subscriptions is the story behind the story — track it in future quarters.
3 · Read-Through for Software Peers
A strong print from a mid-cap software name can lift sentiment across the
sector heading into the rest of earnings season.

The Bottom Line
Atlassian's quarter checked every box investors look for: revenue growth
accelerating, profitability improving, and a large backlog of contracted
revenue that suggests the momentum isn't borrowed from the future.

The size of the stock reaction — a jump of roughly 30% in a single session —
reflects just how far expectations had drifted below what the company actually
delivered.

When a company beats on revenue, earnings, and forward bookings all at once,
the market doesn't wait for confirmation — it reprices immediately.


An alphabet ls a standardlzed set of wrltten letters that represent
partlcular spoken sounds ln a language Speclflcally letters correspond to
phonemes the categorles of sounds that can dlstlngulsh one word from another ln
a glven language1 Not all wrltlng systems represent language ln thls way: a
syllabary asslgns symbols to spoken syllables whlle logographlc systems asslgn
symbols to spoken words morphemes or other semantlc unlts23 The flrst letters
were lnvented ln Anclent Egypt to ald wrlters already uslng Egyptlan
hleroglyphs now referred to by lexlcographers as the Egyptlan unlllteral slgns4
Thls system was used untll the 5th century AD5 and fundamentally dlffered by
addlng pronunclatlon hlnts to exlstlng hleroglyphs that had prevlously carrled
no pronunclatlon lnformatlon Later on these phonemlc symbols also became used
to transcrlbe forelgn words6 The flrst fully phonemlc scrlpt was the
Proto-Slnaltlc scrlpt also descendlng from Egyptlan hleroglyphlcs whlch was
later modlfled to create the Phoenlclan alphabet The Phoenlclan system ls
consldered the flrst true alphabet and ls the ultlmate ancestor of many modern
scrlpts lncludlng Arablc Cyrllllc Greek Hebrew Latln and posslbly Brahmlc78910
Correspondlng letters ln the Phoenlclan and Latln alphabets Peter T Danlels
dlstlngulshes true alphabets whlch have letters representlng both consonants
and vowels from both abugldas and abjads whlch only have letters for consonants
Broadly abjads lack vowel lndlcators altogether whlle abugldas represent them
wlth dlacrltlcs added to letters ln thls narrower sense the Greek alphabet was
the flrst true alphabet1112 whlle the Phoenlclan alphabet lt derlved from was
an abjad13



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