A closer look at youth incarceration. And 22 new reports in our research library.

Criminal Justice Research Library for September 9, 2025 Bringing you the latest in empirical research about mass incarceration

Our mission is to empower activists, journalists, and policymakers to shape effective criminal legal system policy, so we go beyond our original reports and analyses to curate a database of the best empirical research on the criminal legal system available online [[link removed]]. This newsletter includes just the newest additions to this database.

Kids and the criminal legal system

Friends,

Across the country, most students are returning to the classroom, yet over 30,000 are held under lock and key in the juvenile “justice” system. This month, we’re taking a closer look at mass incarceration’s impacts on kids, both directly and indirectly, highlighting some of the best research on the topic.

Before we dive in, though, if you haven’t done so already, I hope you’ll check out our new report, Youth Confinement: The Whole Pie 2025 [[link removed]]. In it, we take a big picture look at the state of youth confinement in America, explain that too many kids are still locked up and that racial disparities in the system are getting worse, and highlight the ways that the juvenile criminal legal system overlaps with the adult system. It provides a strong foundation for people who are unfamiliar with how the youth confinement system works.

Impacts of school suspension: Discipline in schools reverberates far outside the classroom, as this 2023 report shows [[link removed]]. It looked at the impacts of school suspensions on kids from different racial and ethnic groups and future arrests. The researchers found that Black and Hispanic kids who were suspended from school were at higher risk of future arrest. Why? One of the main theories is that they’re labeled as “bad kids” more often than their white peers who are suspended. Pushed into debt: Fees aren’t just an unjust cornerstone of the adult criminal legal system; they’re also common in the juvenile systems. Reports out of Florida [[link removed]] and Virginia [[link removed]] take a closer look at the impact of these charges, and they found that Black and Hispanic kids and their families were especially harmed. Even more infuriating, these charges bring a host of additional consequences to these kids, including making it harder for them to participate in job corps programs or get their driver’s license. Far-reaching impacts: It isn’t just the kids directly entangled in the criminal legal system that feel its pain. This 2024 study [[link removed](24)00164-5/fulltext] looked at electronic health records for thousands of kids. It found that kids who had family members ensnared in the criminal legal system had up to 16 times higher prevalence of mental or physical health diagnoses.

There is hope, though. More and more, schools and teachers recognize that punitive approaches of the past aren’t serving kids or communities. That’s why the National Juvenile Justice Network has put together a guide [[link removed]] to help educators ensure that the classroom remains a place that prioritizes promise and opportunity, rather than punishment.

Now, onto the rest of the recent additions to our Research Library. We’ve added 22 new reports that look at voting in prison, the power of court watch programs, immigration policy, and much more. We hope they’re useful in your work.

-Leah Wang, Senior Research Analyst

P.S. If you’re a teacher, looking to educate students about the mass incarceration crisis, we’ve put together a collection of resources [[link removed]] to help you develop lessons on the carceral system.

We've The Prison Policy Initiative has added 22 new reports to the Research Library [[link removed]]: Community impact [[link removed]]

See 117 reports [[link removed]] on the impact of the criminal legal system on housing, schools, employment, neighborhoods, and more.

How states can lead on community safety: Five recommendations for preventing and reducing violence [[link removed]] by Brookings Institution, May, 2025

"Especially during a time of scarce resources, state leaders cannot afford such backsliding--nor can they afford a resulting uptick in gun violence, which already costs the United States $557 billion each year." Conditions of confinement [[link removed]]

See 283 reports [[link removed]] on prison and jail conditions, such as solitary confinement, labor, discipline, food, and more.

Climate and the Impact on CDCR [[link removed]] by California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation, June, 2025

"In 2024, the Department of Industrial Relations (DIR) adopted a new indoor heat standard specific to all indoor work areas...State and local detention facilities were excluded from those regulations." The Dark Figure of Prison Violence: A Multi-Strategy Approach to Uncovering the Prevalence of Prison Violence [[link removed]] by H. Daniel Butler et al., December, 2024

"We examined almost a decade worth of administrative data (2012-2020), comprising almost 3.5 million guilty rule violations, of which 13% consisted of violence... violent rule infractions ranged from 7% to 29% of all guilty infractions across the states." Sources and Consequences of Prison Violence: Key Findings and Recommendations from the Prison Violence Consortium [[link removed]] by Nancy Rodriguez et al., December, 2024

"Prison violence was concentrated among a small subset of persons, as 10% of the population accounted for more than 50% of guilty violent infractions." Courts and trials [[link removed]]

See 172 reports [[link removed]] on prosecutors, judges, public defense, court caseloads, and more.

Imposing Instability: How Court Fines and Fees Destabilize Government Budgets and Criminalize Those Who Cannot Pay [[link removed]] by Fines and Fees Justice Center, July, 2025

"Between 2018 and 2022, the number of new court cases dropped by 20 percent, yet the amount of fines and fees imposed increased by 3 percent." Crime [[link removed]]

See 288 reports [[link removed]] on crime, crime rates, and victimization.

The Power of Courtwatch [[link removed]] by Courtwatch PG, May, 2025

"In 2024, our [Prince George's County, Md.] court watchers observed and took notes on nearly 3000 bond hearings, including a controlled sample of 1399 hearings for the purpose of developing accurate statistics." Economics of incarceration [[link removed]]

See 185 reports [[link removed]] on the economic drivers and consequences of mass incarceration.

Paying for One's Own Incarceration: National Landscape of "Pay-to-Stay" Fees [[link removed]] by Campaign Zero, June, 2025

"48 states allow for the imposition of at least one category of pay-to-stay fees; only the states of California and Illinois have repealed fees for all categories in state correctional facilities." Families [[link removed]]

See 160 reports [[link removed]] on the criminal legal system's impacts on families.

We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax [[link removed]'t%20Afford%20It%20Report%20-%20FWD.us.pdf] by FWD.us, June, 2025

"Incarceration is costing families with incarcerated loved ones almost $350 billion every year...people with an immediate family member in prison are spending an average of nearly $4,200 annually to stay in touch." Felony disenfranchisement and voting rights [[link removed]]

See 94 reports [[link removed]] on laws barring people from the polls because of criminal convictions.

Voting From Prison: Lessons from Maine and Vermont [[link removed]] by Sentencing Project, July, 2025

"Only 14% of survey respondents said they were reminded by facility staff about important voting dates and deadlines." General [[link removed]]

See 171 reports [[link removed]] on the criminal legal system.

Incarceration on Rikers Island in the Aftermath of the New York State Corrections Officers Strike [[link removed]] by Data Collaborative for Justice, July, 2025

"As of June 2025, [NY DOCCS] prison staffing included 3,000 fewer lieutenants, sergeants, and officers--a 21% reduction from the average in 2024." Immigration [[link removed]]

See 78 reports [[link removed]] on the incarceration and detainment of immigrants.

Prices for all Americans are set to unnecessarily rise [[link removed]] by FWD.us, June, 2025

"Recent and proposed immigration policies will result in American families paying an additional $2,150 for goods and services each year by the end of 2028." Jails [[link removed]]

See 298 reports [[link removed]] on jail populations, jail conditions, jail construction, and more.

Urgent Need for New D.C. Jail [[link removed]] by Center for Court Excellence and Office of the D.C. Auditor, May, 2025

"There were at least 790 - an average of more than two per day - reported assaults on staff and residents during the audit period." Immigration policy, immigrant detention, and the U.S. jail system [[link removed]] by Catalina Amuedo-Dorantes and Mary J. Lopez, March, 2022

"Using data from the 2006-2018 Annual Survey of Jails, we find that increases in the number of detainees held for ICE are related to higher noncitizen jailed populations that are not offset by reductions in their citizen counterparts." Policing [[link removed]]

See 276 reports [[link removed]] on arrests, traffic stops, law enforcement interactions, and more.

Police Militarization in San Francisco Bay Area [[link removed]] by Magali Ruer, American Friends Service Committee, June, 2025

This interactive StoryMap contains data on assault rifle holdings and other militarization efforts in police departments around the Bay Area. Pretrial detention [[link removed]]

See 137 reports [[link removed]] on the costs and outcomes of detaining people before trial.

The Indispensable Role of Judges in Curtailing Excessive Pretrial Detention and Closing Rikers Island [[link removed]] by Close Rikers, April, 2025

"Judges must change an array of pretrial practices that do not advance either public safety or the statutory goal of assuring return to court." Probation and parole [[link removed]]

See 129 reports [[link removed]] on community supervision policies, conditions, violations, and more.

New York Must Rethink Its Parole Release System [[link removed]] by Vera Institute of Justice, September, 2023

"In 2022, the release rate for Black parole-seekers was 29 percent, slightly lower than for Latino parole-seekers (31 percent) and substantially lower than for white parole-seekers (40 percent)." Reentry and recidivism [[link removed]]

See 259 reports [[link removed]] on the challenges and outcomes for people released from incarceration, including collateral consequences.

The Impacts of Clean Slate Laws in Pennsylvania, Utah, and Michigan [[link removed]] by Clean Slate Initiative, June, 2025

"Among respondents who had their records sealed through an automated system, close to half (42%) reported improvement in work, employment, personal finances, or public assistance." Impact of Debt-Based License Suspension Reform on Statewide Employment [[link removed]] by Robert Apel and Colleen Chien, April, 2025

"When analyzed as a categorical or continuous score, states that pass more comprehensive debt-based license suspension reform benefit from growth of 1 percentage point or more in statewide employment." Women and gender [[link removed]]

See 149 reports [[link removed]] on gender disparities in the criminal legal system.

Evaluation Report: Implementation of Minnesota's Healthy Start Act [[link removed]] by Rebecca Shlafer, PhD, MPH and Ingie Osman, MPH, May, 2025

"Many individuals expressed that - particularly in the beginning - there was not a clear, uniform process of informing individuals about HSA, its screening criteria, or what the policy would mean for their potential clients." Minnesota passed the Healthy Start Act in 2021, allowing the conditional release of sentenced, pregnant and postpartum people into community-based alternatives for the duration of the pregnancy and up to one year postpartum. The Hidden Heart of Reentry [[link removed]] by Essie Justice Group, May, 2025

"In the early years of the bail outs, Essie focused primarily on securing release without structured support...by 2019, Essie [was] providing more comprehensive support tailored to the specific needs of each mama." Mental Health Care Barriers for Women Involved in the Criminal Legal System With Substance Use Disorders: A Qualitative Study [[link removed]] by Emma M. Skogseth et al., March, 2025

"While women expressed concern about stigma around seeking mental health medications, some of the professionals expressed stigmatizing views about potential misuse of medications." Youth and juvenile justice [[link removed]]

See 401 reports [[link removed]] on youth in the criminal legal system.

From Punishment to Prevention: A Better Approach to Addressing Youth Gun Possession [[link removed]] by Sentencing Project, June, 2025

"In our national survey [of public defenders and youth justice professionals], 57% characterized the courts' handling of gun possession cases in their jurisdictions as "a major concern."" Please support our work [[link removed]]

Our work is made possible by private donations. Can you help us keep going? We can accept tax-deductible gifts online [[link removed]] or via paper checks sent to PO Box 127 Northampton MA 01061. Thank you!

Other news: Youth Confinement: The Whole Pie [[link removed]]

On any given day, 31,900 youth in the U.S. are in confinement.

Our new report [[link removed]] explains where they are held, under what conditions, and for what offenses, and explores the growing racial disparities in the system.

WEBINAR: Taking the Lede: How advocates can shape news coverage of the criminal legal system [[link removed]]

On September 18, 2025 at 3 p.m. EST, Wanda Bertram of the Prison Policy Initiative and Hannah Riley of the Center for Just Journalism will present a webinar about how advocates for criminal legal reform can frame urgent issues in ways that resonate with journalists, and build media relationships that help them influence the news cycle.

Register here [[link removed]]

Please support our work [[link removed]]

Our work is made possible by private donations. Can you help us keep going? We can accept tax-deductible gifts online [[link removed]] or via paper checks sent to PO Box 127 Northampton MA 01061. Thank you!

Our other newsletters General Prison Policy Initiative newsletter ( archives [[link removed]]) Ending prison gerrymandering ( archives [[link removed]])

Update your newsletter subscriptions [link removed].

You are receiving this message because you signed up on our website [[link removed]] or you met Peter Wagner or another staff member at an event and asked to be included.

Prison Policy Initiative [[link removed]]

PO Box 127

Northampton, Mass. 01061

Web Version [link removed] Unsubscribe [link removed] Update address / join other newsletters [link removed] Donate [[link removed]] Tweet this newsletter [link removed] Forward this newsletter [link removed]

You are receiving this message because you signed up on our website or you met Peter Wagner or another staff member at an event and asked to be included.

Prison Policy Initiative

PO Box 127 Northampton, Mass. 01061

Did someone forward this to you? If you enjoyed reading, please subscribe! [[link removed]] Web Version [link removed] | Update address [link removed] | Unsubscribe [link removed] | Share via: Twitter [link removed] Facebook [[link removed] Email [link removed]